Predator–prey interactions strongly influence the evolutionary fitness underlying the locomotor performance both of predator and of prey. Predation is a model system for the integrative study of locomotion, behavior, and evolution Predator–prey interactions are especially interesting and potentially illuminating because they involve co-evolution between different species. Each of these behaviors can therefore serve as a model system for integrative studies ( Emlen et al. Specialized herbivorous feeding, sexual selection on male–male competition, and predator–prey interactions are examples of behaviors in which biomechanical function determines fitness and drives the evolution of associated morphological features. For these types of integrative studies, it is important to focus on a behavior in which physical performance determines fitness. These studies suggest that experimentation in a laboratory may underestimate, and therefore limit, the understanding of both the biomechanics and the relevant ecological context of an animal operating in a model experimental system.īehavioral studies can thus direct evolutionarily relevant inquiry into biomechanics. Similarly, flights by fruit flies in an outdoor setting reach significantly higher peak velocities than those occurring within a laboratory ( Combes et al. In an outdoor carnival contest, frogs ( Lithobates catesbeianus ) jumped up to twice the maximum distance recorded in the laboratory ( Astley et al. Many biomechanical studies are performed in laboratory settings, where the sensory and physical landscape can differ greatly from the natural habitat.

For example, cryptic stick-insects avoid predation by “rocking” their body in ways that closely resemble the gentle swaying of twigs in the wind, which is far from the maximal performance capabilities of stick-insect morphology observed in a laboratory environment ( Robinson 1969 ). However, maximal performance is only one of several determinants of fitness for an animal in its natural context. Laboratory experiments often focus on determining maximal performance, such as peak velocity, which is important for understanding the capabilities derived from a certain morphology. By considering the interconnectedness of ecology, physical constraints, and the evolutionary history of behavior, studies in biomechanics can be designed to inform each of these fields.īehavioral studies direct evolutionarily relevant inquiry into biomechanicsīehavioral studies of animals in their natural habitat provide a context for the integration of biomechanical and evolutionary analysis.

Variation in speed and direction of locomotion that directly increases the unpredictability of a prey’s trajectory can be increased through genetic mutation that affects locomotor patterns, musculoskeletal changes that affect maneuverability, and physical interactions between an animal and the environment. A predator’s perception and pursuit of prey can be affected indirectly by divergent locomotion of similar animals that share an ecosystem. Classification by strategy reveals that displaying unpredictable trajectories is a relevant anti-predator behavior in response to multiple predation strategies. Thus, considering locomotion in the context of predation ecology can aid in evolutionarily relevant experimental design. Studies of predator–prey interactions also reveal that maximal performance observed in a laboratory setting is not necessarily the performance that determines fitness. This article presents studies of some predator–prey interactions sharing common predation strategies that reveal general principles governing the behaviors of predator and prey, even in distantly related taxa. Although all predators share the goal of capturing prey, and all prey share the goal of survival, the behavior of predators and prey are diverse in nature.

In particular, predator–prey interactions are a model system for integrative study because success or failure of predation has a direct effect on fitness and drives the evolution of specialized performance in both predator and prey. Behavioral studies performed in natural habitats provide a context for the development of hypotheses and the design of experiments relevant both to biomechanics and to evolution.

Predator vs prey eye placement